John Locke Two Treatises Of Government Philosophy Essay

John Locke Two Treatises Of Government Philosophy Essay The easy will endeavour to assess the cogency of the justifications for state power put forward by John Locke in his Two Treatises of Government. Mainly the second Treaty emphasises on the inter-relation of property and formation of Government. Locke has provided a mixed conception of property throughout his both treaties. In his social contract theory Locke made property rights central to the formation and development of civil society and democratic governance. Lockes argument was based on the natural law and where natural law fell short he relied on the Christianity. Locke believed that laws can only be legitimate if they are to promote the common good and that people will as a group do the right thing. According to Locke the reason for people to come under the governmental control was mainly to protect their property. John Locke in his Two Treatises of Government has not given any clear definition of property and rather given a double meaning which refers to an economic right and a quality of being. Professor Reno, B Jeffrey  [2]  pointed out that Locke offers two revealing statements regarding the nature of property. In the First Treatise, he notes, Adams property in the creatures was founded upon the right he had to make use of those things that were necessary or useful to his being  [3]  . In the Second Treatise, Locke says that property is to be used to the best advantage of life and convenience  [4]  . It is significant that in the first statement Locke draws a distinction between property as necessary or useful whereas in the second he creates a union between property existing for life and convenience. Life and convenience are not rival goals such that one chooses to advance one or the other. Rather, echoing the empirical interpretation of the Law of Nature, one seeks preservatio n at all times and comfort when it is available. It is, however, possible to differentiate between goods that serve the advantage of life itselfnecessitiesand goods that serve the advantage of conveniencethe useful. The need for property to fit such broad characteristics helps to make sense of Lockes strange way of explaining its origin and purpose. Locke in his Second Treatises argues that property rights are justified because humans have a right to their preservation and thus have a right to meat and drink and such things that Nature affords for their subsistence.  [5]  Locke further asserts in Section 27 that everyman has a property in his own person[and that]the labour of his body and the work of his hands are properly his. According to Locke, when a person removes something from the state of nature, he has mixed his labour with it, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property. Because labour is the unquestionable property of the labourer, Locke believes that no man but he can have a right to what [his labour] is once joined to. Peter Laslett  [6]  noted that this famous passage, which almost contradicts Lockes first principle that men belong to God, not themselves, together with the general claim that tis Labour indeed that put the difference of value on everything  [7]  are perh aps the most influential statements he ever made. In this section we find a new element labour to his property theory. What follows from this section is that a persons labour and its product are inseparable, and hence ownership of one can be secured only by owning the other. Hence, if a person is to own his body and thus its labour, he must also own what he joins his labour with namely, the product of his labour. Herman T Tavani  [8]  explains that Locke After providing an argument for what is required in the just appropriation of the various kinds of objects that reside in the commons, such as acorns and apples, Locke proceeds to explain how one can justly appropriate portions of the commons itself. He states: As much land as a man tills, plants, improves, cultivates, and can use the product of, so much is his property. He by his labour does, as it were, enclose it from the common  [9]  . Of course, Locke does not believe that ones right to appropriate objects or to enclos e a section of the common is absolute i.e., without qualifications. For example, he imposes certain conditions and constraints as part of his justification for appropriation. One such constraint is sometimes described as the no-waste condition. According to Locke, one may take from the commons only as much as any one can make use of to the advantage of life before it spoils  [10]  . John Willinksy  [11]  notes that Locke built his argument on behalf of considerable differences in the property holdings among people in two ways: first, by giving due weight to the productive value of labour, and then by allowing for the authority of majority consent to establish alternative economic arrangements. Yet it is important to note that in what follows, Locke keeps the collective principle of a world held in common in balance with notions of private property. It was evident from the Lockes social contract that the notion of labour is central to his property theory. But in Chapter V of Second Treatise illustrate that several conditions need to be taken into account in justifying property rights.  [12]  Locke had insisted that whenever something is appropriated from the commons, enough and as good should be left for others who also wish to appropriate. Thus, Locke never assumed that the mere mixing of ones labour with something constitutes a sufficient condition for an individuals right to claim ownership of that thing.  [13]   Peter Laslett  [14]  has pointed out that Lockes account of the origin of property cannot be intended to cover all meaning of the word. For it is not defined as material possessions, nor in units of the conveniences or necessities of life but much more generally as Lives, Liberties and Estates, which I call by the general name, Property  [15]  Laslett further argues that for property to Locke seems to symbolize rights in their concrete form, or perhaps rather to provide tangible subject of an individuals powers and attitudes.  [16]   Lockes First Treatises lays foundation on the concept of property in Section 86 as the right Adams had to make use of those things that were necessary or useful to his being. In the Second Treatises in Section 26 Locke used the notion to the best advantage of life and convenience. Professor Reno  [17]  noted that in the first statement Locke draws a distinction between property as necessary or useful whereas in the second he creates a union between property existing for life and convenience. Life and convenience are not rival goals such that one chooses to advance one or the other. Rather, echoing the empirical interpretation of the Law of Nature, one seeks preservation at all times and comfort when it is available. It is, however, possible to differentiate between goods that serve the advantage of life itself-necessities-and goods that serve the advantage of conveniencethe useful. What follows from the plain reading of Section 86 of Second Treatises is that property, both in the narrow and in the extended sense, is insufficiently protected and inadequately regulated in the state of nature and this is the critical inconvenience which induces men to enter into Society to make one People, one Body Politick under one Supreme Government.. by setting up a Judge on Earth with Authority to determine all Controversies.  [18]   Lockes theory of uniting Men under one Society was based on consent as it was in case of acquisition of property. Critiques like Ashcraft, Dunn and many others argued that in fact the reason was based on ingenuity and force rather than consent. Locke believes that it is consent alone that makes civil society and such society requires political rights and obligations.  [19]  The political power that Locke refers to is the power to make law for that society but it must all be for the good of society.  [20]   It can be argued that governments were originally instituted by force without any agreement, however Locke explicitly says that he must provide an alternative to the view that all governments in the world is the product of force and violence. He admits that some governments are instituted by force and violence but if that were the only form of government he would be denying the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate governments. According to Locke a legitimate government is instituted by the consent of the people being governed.  [21]   Grant  [22]  says that the establishment of government is a two-step approach. Universal consent is necessary to form a political community and consent to join a community once given is binding and cannot be withdrawn. She goes on to ask who rules and the answer is determined by majority rule. Universal consent is required to establish the political community and majority consent to the answer who is to rule that community.  [23]   Radcliffe  [24]  says that David Hume purified Lockes empiricism by rejecting all supernatural grounds for philosophical principles. He set aside Lockes idea of theological basis for his views and relied solely on evidence that sense experience provides. He asked whether history provides any basis for thinking that political power attains legitimacy through a social contract.  [25]  Hume concluded that history does not provide any basis for thinking that political power arose through the social contract. Radcliffe further shows that Hume uncovered another weakness in Lockes social theory. The theory bases the moral obligation to obey civil government on the mutual consent and promise to be governed. However the contract does not offer any basis for the moral obligation to keep such promise.  [26]   The political obligation of obedience is on the same moral footing as the obligation to keep a promise. Hume argues that one cannot be based on the other and if the one is sanctioned then the other will also be sanctioned. However this creates its own problem that if there is no moral basis for the duty of fidelity to promises, the contract theory will not provide any moral basis for duties of political obedience.  [27]   If there is a moral basis for the duty of fidelity to promises then that duty can also form the basis for political obedience and the social contract is unnecessary.  [28]  Hume further argues that if all laws come from Gods divine will why not at the same time say that governments are established directly by Gods will.  [29]   Locke in his Second Treatise,  [30]  gradually unfolded the government and its duties to the people. John Willinksy  [31]  rightly observed that Locke was to provide as firm a basis as anyone could imagine for the closely related growth of the empirical sciences, the rise of industrial capitalism, and the gradual unfurling of democratic government. What was the justification for Governmental control over people? Locke in his Two Treatises of Government depicted a clear picture of the state of nature. Locke holds that Men choose to leave the state of nature and establish a government. They do this because the enjoyment of their life, health and liberty in the state of nature is uncertain and continuously exposed to the invasion by others.  [32]  Therefore man in his natural state before money lived in a state of nature where each was producing only what they needed. The value of the goods they needed was determined by the value that the parties placed on the goods being bartered. As goods were perishable man did not retain more than what he needed to survive on. With the advent of money, man was able to hoard more money than he needed for his requirements. Families increased and industry started to retain more than what they required. This increased the inconveniencies to persons. To avoid the increase in quarrels which may lead to war, man agreed on laws to govern their relations and to form a government. King  [33]  argues that the consent to use money has one very important feature that may have been overlooked by Locke. The use of money allows a more complete fulfilment of natural law by promoting preservation and convenience. As it transcends the scarcity put forward by Locke it permits individuals to appropriate more than what they need. Once they have done so they will sell the excess and so assist in providing for the needs of others. King further says that since those who have more can make money they have an incentive to fulfil others needs and this in turn promotes peace, preservation and convenience.  [34]  Since men are rational the existence of money creates the possibility of greater expressions of rational behaviour. King therefore argues that by overcoming the scarcity limits, the possibility for a more complete fulfilment of the law of nature is created as it allows men to engage in rational activity and such activity results in increased quality of life for a ll.  [35]   Laslett pointed out that Lockes doctrine of property was incomplete, not a little confused and inadequate to the problem as it has been analysed since his day, lacking humanity and the sense of social co-operation to be found in the canonists who had proceeded him.  [36]  Laslett argued that, contrary to the traditional view that Locke had composed the Two Treatises in order to legitimize the 1688 Glorious Revolution, they were actually written surrounding the Exclusion Crisis a decade earlier. Conclusion Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau all stressed that the only way that the state can be justified is to show that everyone would in some way consent to it. They were all thus social contract theorists. The social contract theory supposed conception of political justice and obligation that is based on voluntary consent by the people. That which the people choose to agree to is just and is according to their will. Kant says that people have a duty to agree to act according to the idea of the original contract. There is the problem of justification and it is agreed that the way to look at the justification was by looking at the issue heuristically. As pointed out above Rawl has revived the social contract theory. The concept of property has been changed since Locke but the social contract theory is still applicable to the modern understanding of property. There have been numerous attempts by the academics and modern social theorists to relate Lockes social contract theory with the intellectual property rights and so on. Word Count: 2492 words.

Coca Cola Design and Branding Essay

The Coca-Cola contour bottle is one of the brand’s key icons and is the symbol of the brand’s authenticity. It was developed in 1916 to create a distinct identity for the brand in consumers’ minds and to protect the brand from being imitated by competitors. Today it represents the very essence of the brand’s identity in the marketplace and remains instrumental in differentiating the brand from all other competing products. The familiar shape of the Coca-Cola bottle and the flowing script of its trademark are the world’s most widely recognised commercial symbols. Coca-Cola is recognised by 94 percent of the earth’s population. The Coca-Cola trademark incorporates a number of elements which have become synonymous with the brand. These include: the Coca-Cola red and white graphics, Brand name written in the universally known Spencarian Script, the famous countour shape of the Coca-Cola bottle. Together, these elements are instrumental in differe ntiating Coca-Cola from all other competing brands. The packaging of a product serves a number of functions. At the most basic level, it contains and protects a product. However, packaging is also an important marketing tool. It is critical in describing a product, attracting consumer attention and differentiating the product from competitors. The Coca-Cola contour bottle is perhaps one of the most unique forms of product packaging. While it was originally introduced as a means of protecting the brand from imitation, it is now the most central part of the Coca-Cola brand identity. The bottle communicates the uniqueness, originality, superior refreshment and enduring values of the brand. A market research survey was carried out to examine consumers’ attitudes to the contour shape. In this survey, consumers described the contour bottle as communicating a variety of positive meanings. It was seen as: a symbol of the ultimate enjoyment and refreshment from Coca-Cola, possesing a sensual look and feel, a symbol of good times, universally known and universally accepted, a symbol which unites consumers around the world, an aesthetically beautiful symbol. So important is the contour shape in the marketplace, that it is now the core element of Coca-Cola’s consumer strategy. This has become known as the ‘Contourisation Strategy’. The objectives of this strategy are: 1. motivate consumers to purchase the Coca-Cola brand over other soft drink brands 2. maximise consumer enjoyment of the Coca-Cola product 3. create a distinct identity for Coca-Cola in the mind of the consumer. Good design makes good business sense, because it translates customer needs into the shape and form of the product or service and so enhance profitability. Design includes formalizing three particularly important issues: the concept, package and process implied by the design. The value of packaging is often seen as a paradox. Packaging plays an essential role in meeting consumer needs and preventing waste by effectively protecting product during delivery. The company is actively working throughout the Coca-Cola system to create solutions by advancing a global sustainable packaging strategy aimed at preventing waste over the life of their packaging. The company’s focus is on eliminating all raw material, energy and water losses across the entire packaging process chain-from the initial resources used to make a package through to the consumer and beyond. Today company’s goals focus on four priority areas foe effectively preventing waste: optimizing packaging effeciency, increasing renewable resource use, recovering packages for reuse and increasing recycled material use. With the issues of environmental protection becoming more important, both process and product/service designers have to take account of ‘green’ issues. The Coca-Cola company strive to be the most environmentally efficient user of high-quality, consumer-preferred packaging in the beverage industry. Their packaging innovation teams continually explore new ways to reduce the amount of material and energy used in their packaging without sacrificing quality or transferring waste. All of their major packages have seen significant material reductions since their initial introductions. In 2008, the Coca-Cola system made progress in packaging tracking and incremental and breakthrough advances in packaging efficiency. They focus the majority of their material reduction innovations on the packaging they use most-PET, glass, aluminum and fountain. Fountain beverages-one of their oldest and most efficient package delivery systems-account for 12 percent of their global unit case volum e. In 2008, they worked to further optimize the packaging efficiency of their fountain beverages by developing even higher syrup concentrations, commercializing a new cold, compostable beverage cup, and supporting commercial copmosting initiatives. Approximately 85 percent of the company’s global beverage volume is delivered in recyclable bottles and cans. To realize their long-term sustainability aspirations, the recovery of these containers and their materials for reuse is critical. The company’s goal is to increase this recovery to 50 percent by 2015. In order to do so, they focus primarily on advancing four core packaging recovery models:comprehensive product stewardship programs in developed markets; recycling cooperative programs in developing and emerging markets; voluntary deposits on refillable packages in least-developed markets; and Coca-Cola-operated recycling enterprises globally. A key to driving recovery is ensuring that market demand for collected materials is strong. The Coca-Cola system helps foster this demand by advancing sustainable technologies that enable greater use of recycled content material in their packaging; purchasing products made from recycled beverage packaging; and enhancing the efficiency of their refillable bottles. The Coca-Cola company has strong supply network design. The company sells the concentrates and syrups for bottled and canned beverages to authorized bottling and canning operations. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup with filtered water and sweeteners, and then carbonate it before putting it in cans and bottles, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants and food service distributors. Most of the products are manufactured and sold by the bottling partners.The company sells concentrates and syrups to the bottling partners, who convert them into finished packaged products which they sell to distributors and other customers. The Coca-Cola company makes their branded beverage products available to consumers throughout the world through their network of bottling, partners,distributors, wholesalers and retailers-the world’s largest beverage distribution system. The positioning of the product in the supermarket is one of the most important things for the companyâ€℠¢s customers. In retail stores, Coca-Cola puts its products in the most prominent shelf position in refrigerators. There are 10 million Coca-Cola branded machines around the world, such as: coolers, vending machines, and fountains. The company calls tha machines ‘stores within stores’ and ‘interaction points with customers’. The innovation in the equipment that company makes is: a new fountain machine that serves 100-plus different beverages; re-imagined coolers that use classic Coca-Cola design themes and 40% less energy; and fully interactive vending machines with large display screens that are both Wi-Fi and Bluethoot-enabled. The connectivity technologies will let customers download music, coupons, or other promos to their cell phones. Coca-Cola uses an innovative bottling process at its bottling plants. In order to ensure speedy bottling without compromising quality, Coca-Cola’s bottling process involves the following steps: 1. The water is filtered and cleaned with a special treatment system. A sanitiser and 180-degree Fahrenheit water is used to clean all of the equipment while the water is being prepared. 2. The syrup tank is prepared for mixing. 3. Empty bottles are placed onto a conveyor to be filled and stacked. 4. The bottles go trough a quality control process, and examined foe any defects. Approved bottles are moved forward to be rinsed. 5. The bottles are rinsed with de-ionized air to remove any particles. 6. The syrup and water are mixed in just the right ratios, and filtered carbon dioxide is added. The mixture is pored into the bottles according to a predetermined volume. 7. The bottles are stamped with a date and code, and then moved to a fill-level inspector and capper. At Coca-Cola, the bottling line was designed to fill 20 bottles per minute. However, bottling speeds vary significantly depending on the type of product being bottled, equipment, and type of bottles or cans. The good design of the company’s work environment is extrimely important to the business success. The Coca-Cola company provides a safe and healthy work environment through implementation of their Occupational Safety and Health policies and requirements. They think about their employees. The Coca-Cola Company’s Workplace Rights Policy is giuded by international human rights standards. The Policy includes: Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining, Forced labour, Child labour, Discrimination, Work Hours and Wages, Safe and Healthy Workplace, Workplace Security, Community and Stakeholder Engagement. In addition, The Coca-Cola company shows that follows all of the steps for perfect process design. The company has success, because of the creative design product, strong supply netwotk design, high control of the process technology and providing the perfect working environment, because they care about the employees.

Glendun river fieldwork report CCEA

The aim of my fieldwork is to study how a river's dynamics change downstream. Specifically I shall be looking at how particle size, discharge, cross sectional area, velocity, gradient and width change downstream. Planning To give a clear aim to my investigation I have decided to prove or disprove three hypotheses. These are based on the ideal river model and they are: * Downstream discharge will increase * Downstream particle size will decrease * Downstream the gradient of the river will decrease As a class we decided that the Glendun River was an appropriate river to study since its length facilitates for a noticeable change in results between its source and its mouth. The river is also only an hour's driving time from our school and the river has relatively easy access. It also has minimum human interference which could corrupt our data. This location has also been used in past river studies by our school and no safety problems arose in the past. We also discussed the possible safety issues that we should be aware of such as Weil's disease, slippery rocks and pot holes in the river. We then ensured that a first aid kit was brought with us as well as mobile phones in case of an emergency and that appropriate clothing was worn. Also everyone was made aware of what procedures to follow in an emergency. The week before the fieldtrip we conducted a small pilot study in a small stream in the grounds of our school where we tested each piece of equipment to make sure it functioned correctly. We discovered that our flow metre was faulty so we decided to instead to time how long it took for an object to cover a stretch of river. We decided to use an orange since it is buoyant and brightly coloured and to use a 10 metre stretch of river since we are using it for other measurements and it is long enough to give reliable results. Also on the week before of our teachers went down to the river on a pre-site visit to check that all of our pre-determined sites were viable to use. She concluded that all our sites were practical to use in our investigation. Data Collection: Collected on Thursday 25th October The primary data used in this investigation is the results we took down on the fieldtrip. The secondary data sources we are going to use are the internet, our class notes and handouts, the David Wough AS level textbook and the Ordnance survey map. The type of sampling used on the fieldtrip was systematic; the sites chosen to investigate were 1.3km apart. Pragmatic sampling would have to have been used in the event that one of the pre defined sites proved to be inaccessible on the day; none of which were. Particle Size Particle size was recorded at each stop by two people measuring the longest axis of 30 stones from the river bed while a third person recorded the results. The average of the lengths was taken for each stop. The equipment used was a metre ruler. Cross Sectional Area The width of the river was measured by two people with a measuring tape at either side of the river. The depth was then recorded by another person with a metre stick taking measurements from the measuring tape to the riverbed in increments of 0.5 metres until the whole width of the river was recorded and then an average depth was calculated from these results. The cross sectional area was then worked out by multiplying the average depth by the average width. Velocity A ten metre stretch of the river was measured with the tape measure. An orange was dropped at the upstream end and a stopwatch was used to record the time taken for the orange to travel the ten metre stretch. This was repeated three times and an average taken. If the orange got stuck that particular attempt would be scrapped and then it would be carried out again. Gradient The gradient of the river was calculated with an abney level and a gauging pole. We used the same ten metre marking used when we measured velocity. We took three readings along the ten metre width and calculated the average gradient from them. Discharge The discharge of the river was worked out by multiplying the average velocity and the average cross sectional area found at each site to give the discharge.

Essay on BUSI650 B05 DB1 Thread RCherry - 1859 Words

Discussion Board 1 Ryan Cherry BUSI 650 – Operations Management January 18, 2015 Key Concept Explanation The concept of a â€Å"job shop† as a transformation system, refers to a process which has a somewhat jumbled flow, high flexibility, and outputs which are processed differently (Lyons, Vidamour, Jain, Sutherland, 2013). One of the most important aspects of the job shop which must be understood relates to the definition presented above. Managing a job shop is difficult because of the numerous different routes that an output might take, the numerous different inputs which are required, and the differing operations and amounts of time (Meredith Shafer, 2013). â€Å"[S]ince every output must be treated differently†, efficiently†¦show more content†¦1348). Biblical Integration When considering the purpose of instituting the appropriate transformation system is to achieve the maximum â€Å"efficiency, effectiveness, volume, capacity, lead time, flexibility, and so on†, there are a few Bible verses which almost immediately spring to mind (Meredith Shafer, 2013, p. 50). The appropriate transformation system seeks to improve the work of our hands, allowing us to â€Å"work heartily, as for the Lord and not for men† (Col. 3:23, English Standard Version). The improved work of our hands will also allow our souls to be richly rewarded and allow our diligent hands to rule (Prov. 13:4, 12:24, ESV). Before making any decision, however, the manager should seek to commit his work to the Lord, so that his â€Å"plans will be established† (Prov. 16:3). Application Real-world businesses with customers which require product flexibility, in lower volumes, have the beginnings of a job shop production process (Choudhari, Adil, Ananthakumar, 2012). Such a beginning is further evidenced when the job force is made up of highly skilled employees that are able to help create a wide array of products (Pederson, Dresdow, Benson, 2013). The job shop process is also very widely used because of its many advantages, and despite the scheduling challenges which it presents (Meredith Shafer, 2013). Organizations